Jobs for the Girls: A Female Dominated Workforce?

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Last updated: 31/01/2012 09:08:31

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When: 11-20yrs

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Keywords:

women, workplace, economy, business, politics, gender, feminism, demographics, jobs, information economy

Summary

Women outperform and outnumber men in higher education, and some suggest that ‘feminine’ skills (such as good communication skills) are better suited to today’s knowledge economy. As a result, while today the position of women in the labour force is still worse than that of men (lower salaries, more working part-time involuntarily, etc.), they may in the future assume a more equal position in the labour market. Nevertheless, the gender pay gap may remain an issue, with disproportionate numbers of women on low incomes. A consequence of women’s improved position in the labour market is that it may contribute to declining birth rates.

Discussion

The proportion of women who are economically active has increased steadily over the last 40 years in the United Kingdom (from 56 per cent in 1971 to 70 per cent in 2008) across a range of industries and sectors. [1] [2] At the same time, the proportion of men in the labour market has dropped considerably over the same period (from 92 per cent in 1970 to 79 per cent in 2008). [3] [4] [5] Nevertheless, men’s employment rate is still higher than women’s (79 per cent for men and 70 per cent for women in 2008).

There are several factors that have contributed to the rise in women’s labour market participation worldwide, including their increased access to higher education, improved technology which has reduced the amount of time needed for traditional female domestic work (such as widespread use of washing machines, vacuum cleaners and other time-saving appliances), the feminist movement, more job opportunities for women (especially with the growth of the service economy) and the need for a dual income to support the family. It is also argued that many attributes and soft skills associated with women - good listening/communicating skills; ability to mediate and compromise; a tendency towards broad, as opposed to focused, thinking - are ideally suited to jobs in the modern business world, and thus have helped increase women’s opportunities in today’s labour market. [6]

There are now more women than men in universities (women earn nearly 60 per cent of university degrees in Europe and the United States (US)) and girls outperform boys in education by a growing margin, [7] even to some extent in subjects like maths and the sciences which have traditionally been 'male'. [8] The growing cohort of university-educated women is also educated in more marketable subjects than in the past, such as business or management and it improves their value in the job market. [9] Put together, these influences have shifted women’s role from primarily stay-at-home mothers and wives to being increasingly economically active and independent.

The differences in educational achievement are starting to filter down into the labour market; the pay gap between women and men is – arguably – narrowing [10] (see [11] for an opposing view) and there are increasing numbers (though still low: c. only 10-15 per cent) of all highly paid, senior jobs taken by women. [2] [12] Although women now head some of the world's most successful companies, on average they are severely under-represented at the top of organisations. Occupational and horizontal segregation still persists, with middle rungs dominated by men and the upper rungs of managerial consultancies and banks nearly out of reach for women. This shows that the ‘glass ceiling’ – an invisible barrier that impedes the career advancement of women – is still present.

Equally, although there are more women than ever in senior political roles, women still constitute the minority in politics. [13] [14] In some countries, legislation has been put in place to guarantee a minimum percentage of women in the boards of private companies (for example, Sweden) and in Parliaments (for example, Norway and Sweden), but the UK has not passed any such measures. There are, however, some voices requesting an investigation into the under-representation of women, ethnic minorities and the disabled in the British politics, and calls for mandatory quotas for the UK parliament. [15]

Although the gender pay gap is narrowing it is still wide and particularly persistent in some sectors and occupations. [16] In the UK, the typical full-time female worker earns only 80 per cent as much as the typical male. [9] Some industries, such as construction and IT, typically offering well-paid jobs, remain male dominated, while other sectors of the economy, such as hospitality or caring jobs are still largely done by women, usually on low salaries. In addition, disproportionate numbers of the women in the workforce are in low income and part-time jobs. [1]

Women’s rising aspirations are still often unfulfilled as many women are forced to choose between motherhood and career. Whilst men are willingly taking up a greater share of the domestic chores, it is still women who are largely carrying out these duties. [17] Combining family and professional life is a challenging task. Many professional women reject motherhood entirely, others delay child-bearing until a later age, often for so long that they are unable to conceive naturally and are forced into the booming fertility industry. [9] Part-timing is often adopted by women as a solution to the problem of combining work and parenthood. The cost of motherhood is particularly steep for women in professions where wages rise steeply and schedules are demanding. Traditional female occupations, such as teaching, with hours that can be easily combined with caring for children, and with wages not rising much with experience, allow women to grow professionally and at the same time mix well with motherhood. In contrast, in order to be promoted and grow professionally, women in occupations such as business management, law or medicine often have to commit to a highly demanding working pattern, reducing the time and energy available for family life. [9]

Efforts to increase the number of people participating in the labour force involve benefit reduction schemes, education and training programmes and the introduction of policies helping working parents to facilitate parental and work responsibilities. Improvements in government and public childcare provision, and opportunities to work from home which offer great employment flexibility, help many women to combine family and work life. [18]
However, despite some increase in the burden of domestic work undertaken by men, and improvements in childcare provision, women as child bearers still suffer significant obstacles and discrimination in the labour market. [19] [11] Evidence suggests that some educated, affluent and powerful women are now choosing to “opt out” and downshift to conventional roles of motherhood and home life, balanced where possible with low key part-time work and volunteering. [19]

Implications

As more women enter the workforce traditional assumptions about gender roles have begun to break down and competition for work to increase across all industries. This larger, more competitive labour pool could benefit the economy by making available new and better skills. Women are already in command of far more disposable income than ever before and this may lead to increased consumption fuelling economic growth.

Women are also seen as the beneficiaries of the growing ‘war for talent’. An ageing workforce and a more skill-dependent economy mean that countries have to make a better use of their female populations. [9]

On the other hand, the increasing number of women in highly professional roles may have a significant negative impact for society. For instance, questions are emerging about who will fill the gap left by women in “the sisterhood” of caring, socially supportive work (e.g. teachers, nurses, social workers) upon which society relies, as they move increasingly into other types of jobs. (For further debates about this argument see [20] and [21]).

The rise in the numbers of women in work could also create huge changes in the nature of the family. Unless matched by an increase in the number of men staying at home or a big increase in people working from home, a significant growth in the provision of care for children, the sick and the elderly would be required. Without such growth, people might postpone having children until later in life (which entails health risks for mother and baby, and a possible reduction in the number of children a woman has) in order to concentrate on their careers. The demographic implication resulting from the fall in the number of children may facilitate some changes in the government policies helping working parents combining their family and work responsibilities. Conversely, lack of improvement in care provision may stop many women entering the labour force altogether, perpetuate gender pay and promotion differentials, or continue to push some of them to part-time or lower paid work.

As the current situation, in which a large proportion of women are in work and constitute a large proportion of the workforce, is almost certain to continue, companies may have to rethink their employment strategies to accommodate the changing needs of their personnel. There are already some indicators of adaptation strategies, with an increasing number of companies allowing flexible working, home-working, job-share, paid sabbatical, and rethinking employee’s career progression and promotions. [9] In addition to the changes in the corporate world, some women might decide to set up their own companies and become their own employer.

Gender discrimination may also become an increasingly tricky issue in international relations, as the situation of women in traditional patriarchal nations will become more conspicuous to those countries where women take a more active role in politics and business.

If women do come to assume a more equal role or even dominate new professions in the information economy then the more traditional industries such as manufacturing could come to be regarded as male 'ghettoes' where men could be trapped in manual jobs unable to break into the service industries. By contrast, ‘feminine' qualities could become seen as ideal for business and men might find themselves having to adopt more of these attitudes and behaviour if they want to succeed.

A reactionary political men's movement could develop in response to these kinds of changes. These would probably include campaigns to avoid discrimination against men and to help bring men into careers in the new industries. It might also include more aggressive, patriarchal or traditionalist reactions against the 'rise' of women. Another outcome could be that men may argue that they should have more rights over their children, especially since women would no longer play the traditional 'mothering' role. [22]

Early indicators

In the European Union women have filled 6 million of the 8 million jobs created since 2000. [9]
In the US, female unemployment rate is 8.6% against 11.2% for men in 2009. [9]
Women make up more than two-thirds of employees in ten of the 15 job categories likely to grow fastest in the next few years. [9]
Number of top female managers rises to 25 per cent.

Drivers & Inhibitors

Drivers:
Childcare provision improves. More affordable private childcare. More pre- and after-school provision at the school.
Growing demand for women’s labour.
Rise of the service sector and decline of manufacturing. Women prove better equipped to deal with the demands of new industries.
Women are increasingly willing and able to work outside the home.
Gender quotas favouring the employment of women introduced in the workplace.
Companies provide more flexible working arrangements.
Equal-rights acts passed in many countries.
Government initiated schemes (such as tax credits) providing financial support to working families.

Inhibitors:
Male-dominated network proves resilient against social and political pressure.
Lack of inexpensive childcare facilities to provide women with sufficient options.
Growth of discourse on the importance of tradition and family.
Constant attraction and pull of mothering roles and family life leading women away from full-time involvement in labour market.

Parallels & Precedents

Gender quotas in political systems.
Women’s parliamentary representation in Sweden stands at 47.3 per cent.
Equal opportunity and anti-discrimination law.

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The contents of this paper were provided by the Outsights-Ipsos MORI Partnership. Any views expressed are independent of government and do not constitute government policy.